Universal (A and E) Propositions

In other contexts, however, we seem to use universal (A and E) propositions without committing ourselves to the existence of the things referred to in the subject and predicate terms. For example, if we say, “All trespassers will be fined,” we are not committing ourselves to the existence of any tres- passers or to any actual fines for trespassing; we are only saying, “If there are trespassers, then they will be fined.” Similarly, if we tell a sleepy child, “No ghosts are under your bed,” we are not committing ourselves to the existence of ghosts or anything under the bed. Finally, when Newton said, “All bodies that are acted on by no forces are at rest,” he did not commit himself to the existence of bodies that are acted on by no forces. Given these examples of A and E propositions that carry no commitment to the things referred to, it is easy to think of many others.